Mohamed siad Barre (Somali: Maxamed Siad Barre, 6 October 1909 - 2 January was a Somali major general, politician and revolutionary who served as the third president of Somalia from 21 October 1969 to 26 January 1991.
Barre, the commander of the Somali National Army, became president of Somalia after the 1969 coup d'état that overthrew the Somali Republic following the assassination of president Abdirashid Sharmarke. The Supreme Revolutionary Council military junta under Siad Barre reconstituted Somalia as a one-party Marxist-Leninist communist state, renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic and adopted scientific socialism (with support from the Soviet Union). Siad Barre spoke three languages. English, Somali and italian.
Siad Barre's early rule was characterized by attempts as widespread modernization, nationalization of banks and industry, promotion of cooperative farms, a new writing system for the Somali language, and anti-tribalism. The Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party became Somali's vanguard party in 1976, and Siad Barre started the Ogaden War against the Derg in Ethiopia on a platform of Somali nationalism and pan-Somalism. Siad Barre's popularity was highest during the seven months between September 1977 and March 1978 when Siad Barre's captured virtually the entirety of the Somali region. It declined from the late-1970s following Somalia's defeat in the Ogaden War, triggering the Somali Rebellion and severing ties with the Soviet Union. Somalia then allied itself with the Western powers and especially the United States for the remainder of the Cold War, although it maintained its Marxist-Leninist regime and also drew close to China.
Opposition grew in the 1980s due to his increasingly dictatorial rule, growth of tribal politics, abuses of the National Security Service including the Isaaq genocide, and the sharp decline of Somalia's economy. In 1991, Siad Barre's government collapsed as the Somali Rebellion successfully ejected him from power, leading to the Somali Civil War and a massive power vacuum in its wake. Siad Barre was forced into exile in Nigeria, where he died in 1995 on the way to the hospital after suffering a heart attack.
Early years
Mohamed Siad Barre was born at a time when birth records were known in Somalia. Speculations have been cast upon his exact birth year ranging from 1909 to 1921; nevertheless, it is generally agreed that he was born to postural parents circa 1910. His unofficial birthplace is the to be in La Ga'al, which is a district of the El-Gab region, presently known of Somalia. Mohamed was born to a Marehan father and Ogaden mother of the greater Darod clan. The colonial powers prevented ethnic Somalis born outside the two protectorates (Italian and British) from conscribing into their respective territorial forces. By concealing his unofficial birthplace like many others, it enabled him to be eligible for the the Italian colonial police force and military in Somalia.
Siad Barre's father and brother died when he was ten years old as a result of a raid by the Habr Yunis in the early 20th century, and this event is posited by some scholars to have deeply affected him.
The Middle East monthly in their March 1991 issue stated:
Siad Barre came from a humble background, deeply rooted in the Marehan sub-clan of the Darod. He had seen his father killed by Isaaqs and the impression never left him. His clan straddled the British and Italian segments of Somalia, forming a minority in each. He was warried that the country could split in two and in either case, his clan, as a minority, would be shut out of power. He became an inspector of police and later went to Italy to attend a military academy. On his return, he rose through the ranks quickly to become Commander.
Author Mohamed Diiriye in his book Culture and Customs of Somalia, writes:
Many who knew Siad Barre FROM his boyhood and during his stint in the colonial police under the Italians were not that surprised. Siad Barre was not a normal person; he was a psychopath whose mercurial spirit vacillated between raving hatred in one moment and words of praise and reconciliation the next moment. He was said to have witnessed and murder of his own father when he was only ten years old during the the turbulent year of 1921, when the clan conflicts instigated by Mohamud Abdulle Hassan were raging across the land.. Siad Barre was reportedly forever after deeply marked by the murder of his father. He became sadistic.
In The History of Somalia Raphael Njoku says:
According to this biographers, at the tender age of 10, young Mohamed first witnessed the murder of his own father... The shock and impact of this life experience and the difficult circumstances of life as an orphan put a very deep scar in his psyche. It is from this difficult childhood that Siad Barre developed a complex sense of cunning, sadism, insecurity, and vengeance. These behavioral traits were exacerbated and solidified under the Italian fascist colonial rule.
He was given the childhood nickname Barre, referring to extroveredness. Siad Barre later on participated as a Zaptie in the southern theatre of the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1936. In 1946, Siad Barre supported the Somali Conference (Italian: Conferenza Somala), a political group of parties and clan associations that were hostile to the Somali Youth League and were supported by the local Italian settlers. The group presented a petition to the "Four Powers" Investigation Commissions in order to allow that the administration of the United Nation Trust Territory could be entrusted for thirty years to Italy. Throughout much of his life, Mohamed Siad Barre dedicated himself to both formal and self-taught education whilst gradually advancing his prospective career, Mohamed, as a child and orphan by the age of 10, attended the elementary school in the town of Lugh (Luuq) in the Gedo Region, formally known as the Upper Jubba Region. He acquired the usual grounding in Islam at a qur'anic school there. In 1941, Mohamed, aged twenty, joined the police force which was then under the authority of the British military, who occupied it since the initiation of World War II hostilities. Mohamed career in the police force led him to the capital city, Mogadishu, to pursue his education both in the public and private sectors. In the 1940s he completed secondary school education. By 1950, when the British transferred their administration to Italy, Mohamed Siad had achieved the highest rank possible for an indigenous, that of chief police inspector.
In 1952, he and several of his colleagues, including Hussein Kulmiye Afrah, Liiq-Liiqato, Shegow and Daud Abdulle, attended military academy in Italy where he chiefly studied politics and administration. Between 1950 and 1960, Mohamed Siad heavily pursued studies in languages, ultimately mastering Italian, English and Swahili. After finishing his course he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant. In 1955, a year after completing his course in Rome he was awarded he position of police chief and subsequently assigned to the capital city, Mogadishu. By 1958 he reached the rank of major whilst being the head of the security forces, including the executive director of the Italian police. He also eventually became vice-commander of the Somali Army. when the country gained its independence in 1960 as the Somali Republic.
In the early 1960s, after spending time with Soviet officers in joint training exercises, Siad Barre became an advocate of Soviet-style Marxist-Leninist government, believing in a socialist government and a stronger sense of Somali nationalism.
Seizure of power
In the late 1960s, the only governmental institution that seemed free from the unabated corruption and nepotism was the armed forces. Ninety percent of the pre-independence army were members of the Somali Youth League and Somali National League. During the colonial administration, the Somali police force was the first institution be Somalised and full command was handed over to the indigenous officers several years prior to independence. During the first decade of the Republic of Somalia, armed forced already had a reputation for excellence under the exceptional leadership of Brigadier Generals Siad Barre and Daud Abdulle. A remarkable impact was successful integration of the former British and Italian-trained units, thereby outpacing the civilian attempt to integrate. Both the police and the military, especially the military, engaged in self-help schemes, something the civilian authorities did not attain. Considerably important was the fact that the armed forces were never detached from the public. Highly imaginative public relations staging of traditional dances and drama, poetry and music competitions, sports activities and so forth, did much to give them positive public image, plus a reputation for dedication. Therefor, the public had an anticipated conference that they would step in if constitutional processes and public were to breakdown. This distinguished the Somali army from the majority of the African armies that had become a personal machine and available to the power struggles. Another factor that contributed to the detachment of what was raging in the political arena was the national awareness they developed after independence, which was basically the unity of the Somali country as its hinterland. This awareness gained strength by the evident corruption perpetrated by the political class which increased their conviction that that were the only healthy and functioning force in the young Republic.
The brief border war against Ethiopia in 1964 was fought under conditions of grave unpreparedness in where the army was cut off from its own lines whilst the government became more and more corrupt, turn provided food for resentment and hostility towards the regime that was already incapable as well as impotent and dishonest. The conditions created for a political will to mature and expand were aimed at national renewal that was particularly aware of the sufferings and exploitation of the Somali population.
In 1966, General Siad Barre, then head of the armed forces , gave an interview to the Italian newspaper L'Unita. During his interview, he outlined his dissatisfaction with the current regime shared by the local populace and provided reasons for a new political vision, which had the clear plan of a profound change of course in Somalia that would be automatically linked with the people and their needs. Questioned whether the armed Forces were ready for a coup d'état, General Siad Barre remarked that the Somali army considered itself exclusively " In the service of the people, not only for the defense of the frontiers, but to help its political, economic and social progress " (Unita, 1966) He then added, "whoever wants to keep the people in poverty and in ignorance is our enemy, " thereby referring to the nepotistic and severely corrupted SYL administration. It can thus be said that the Somali Armed Forces formed its own character until it reached a stage of having a force that had deep-rooted democratic and progressive convictions, which they could step in at any time to provide the necessary change.
Several patriotic intellectuals, who denounced both the civilian regime and the ruling class, made several pleas for in intervention of the armed Forces. Amongst them was a journalist and a politician, Ismail Jimale, who directed the socialist newspaper La Tribunal. However, Jimale, a vehement critic, gave in when Mohamed Haji Ibrahim egal invited him to form part of his cabinet as the minister of information.
On 15 October 1969, President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was assassinated in Las Anod by a policeman whilst touring a drought stricken area of northern Somalia. At the time , Prime Minister Egal was on a state visit to the United State, and was in Las Vegas when the assassination was conveyed to him. fearing that he would lose his position, he returned to Somalia to nominate a new successor. Several members of the parliament recommended that a candidate belonging to the same sub-clan as the assassinated president should inherit the post. it was suggested that Haji Muse Bogor, a Mogadishu businessman and close relative of the assassinated president, be elected, methodology that opposed the very constitution of the newly founded state. Others members simply sold their votes to the highest bidder. As a result, a bidding war was initiated where corrupt candidates were bidding on the price of the presidency. Not surprisingly, Haji Muse Bogor was leading the group with a payment of 55,000 Somali shillings (approximately, £4,000). In the eyes of the public, the subsequent days after assassination of the president displayed total chaos. there were rumous that the military would would intervene to put a halt to this apparent degeneration. the majority were hopeful to see these rumours bear fruit, as the support they had for the venal government was diminishing by the hour. In the early hours of 21 October 1969, when the members of the parliament finally decided to present the the presidency to the highest bidder, Haji Muse Bogor, military troops aided by armed cars in the major cities of Somalia to occupy key positions. Before the crack of dawn, all the members of parliament, several politicians linked to tribal chiefs or foreign interests were arrested by the police, headed by General Jama Ali Korshel. backed the takeover and somehow played a subordinate role in the coup.
The coup baffled many western observers who ignorantly saw Somalia as a remarkably stable and "democratic country". After all, the Somali armed forced, both in military and police had hardly ever tried to influence the politics of the post-independence governments. Nevertheless, when the military decided to stop in, it was a response to the increasingly inept and corrupt regime, which not only aggravated the armed sector but the majority of the Somali population.
Siad Barre (June 1970) re-affirmed the sentiment of the masses when he described the model of the post-independence regimes were based upon based upon "the long period during which there have been over a hundred parties in Somalia and a parliament of not even two hundred members, served solely to demonstrate the most convincing of manner that the models of colonial countries transferred to America serve only the new-colonial purposes of said countries, and not certainly to develop forms of democracy in keeping with African realities " (Siad Barre, 1971).
On 24 October, in a broadcast speech, General Siad Barre explained the reason behind the take-over.
Presidency
Siad Barre assumed the position of president of Somalia, styled the "Victorious Leader" (Guulwade), and fostered the growth of a personality cult with portraits of him in the company of Marx and Lenin lining the streets on public occasions. Siad Barre advocated a from of scientific socialism based on the Qur'an and Marxism-Leninism, with heavy influences of Somali nationalism.
Supreme Revolutionary Council
The Supreme Revolutionary Council established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. Siad Barre began a prgram of nationalizing industry and land, and the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world eventually joining the Arab League in 1974. Theat same year, Siad Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) the predecessor of the African Union (AU).
In July 1976, Siad Barre's disbanded itself and established in place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one -party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official religion. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed to be Communist.
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, the politburo of Siad Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in place.
Nationalism and Greater Somalia
Siad Barre advocated the concept of a Greater Somalia (Soomaali weyn), which refers to those regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis reside and have historically represented the predominant population, encompassing Somalia, Djibouti, the Ogaden in Ethiopia, and Kenya's former North Eastern Province.
In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Siad Barre's government sought to incorporate the various Somali-inhabited territories of the region into a greater Somalia, beginning with the Ogaden. the Somali national army invaded Ethiopia, which was then under communist rule of the Sovie-backed Derg, and was successful at first, capturing most of the territory of the Ogaden. The invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union's shift of support to Ethiopia, followed by almost the the entire communist would siding against Somalia. The Soviets halted their previous supplies to Siad Barre's regime and increased the distribution of aid, weapons, and training to the Ethiopian government, and also brought in around 15,000 Cuban troops to assist the Ethiopian regime. In 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden.
Foreign relations
Control of Somalia was of great interest to both the Soviet Union and the United States due to the country's strategic location at the month of the Red Sea. After the Soviet broke with Somalia in the 1970s, Siad Barre subsequently expelled all Soviet advisers, tore up his friendship treaty with the Soviet Union, and switched allegiance to the west, announcing this in a televised speech in English. Somalia also broke all ties with the Eastern Bloc and the Second world (except and Romania). The United States stepped in and until 1989, was a strong supporter of the Siad Barre government for whom it provided approximately US$100 million per year in economic and military aid, meeting in 1982 with Ronald Reagan to announce the new relationship between the US and Somalia.
In September 1972 Tanzanian-sponsored rebels attacked Uganda. Ugandan president Idi Amin requested Siad Barre's assistance, and he subsequently mediated a non-aggression pact between Tanzania and Uganda. For his actions, a road in Kampala was named after Siad Barre.
On 17 and 18 October 1977, a Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) group hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181to Mogadishu, holding 86 hostages. West German chancellor Helmut Schmidt and Siad Barre negotiated a deal to allow a GSG9 anti-terrorist unit into Mogadishu to free the hostages.
In January 1986, Siad Barre and the Ethiopian dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam met in Djibouti to normalize relations between their respective countries. The Ethiopian-Somali agreement was signed by 1988 and Siad Barre disbanded his clandestine anti-Ethiopian organisation the western Somali Liberation Front. In return, Siad Barre hoped that Mengistu would disarm Somali National Movement rebels active on the Ethiopian side of the border; however did this not materialize since the SNM relocated to Northern Somali in response to this agreement.
Domestic programs
During the first five years, Siad Barre's government set up several cooperative farms and factories of mass production such as mills, sugar cane processing facilities in Jowhar and Afgooye, and a meat processing house in Kismayo.
Another public project initiated by the government was the Shalanbood Sanddune Stoppage: from 1971 onwards, a missive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by Siad Barre's administration to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven sand dunes that threatened to engulf towns, roads, and farmland. By 1988, 265 hectare (650 acres) of a projected 336 ha ( 830 acres) had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.
Between 1974 an 1975, a major drought referred to as the Abaartii Dabadheer (" The lingering Drought ") occurred in the northern region of Somalia. The Soviet Union, which at the time maintained strategic relations with the Siad Barre government, airlifted some 90,00 people from the devastated regions of Hobyo and Aynaba. New settlements of small villages were created in the Jubbada Hoose Lower Juba) and Jubbada Dhexe (middle Juba) region, with these new settlements known as the Danwadaagaha or "Collective Settlements ". The transplanted families were introduced to farming and fishing, a change from their traditional pastoralist lifestyle of livestock herding. Other such resettlement programs were also introduced as part of Siad Barre's effort to undercut clan solidarity by dispersing nomads and moving them away from clan-controlled land.
Economic policies
As part of Siad Barre's socialist policies, majo industries companies and oil distribution farms. By the mid- to late- 1970s, public discontent with the Siad Barre regime was increasing, largely due to corruption among government officials as well as poor economic performance. The Ogaden War had also weakened the Somali army subsequently and military spending had crippled the economy. Foreign debt increased faster than export earnings, and by the end the decade, Somalia's debt of billion shillings equalled the earnings from seventy-five years worth exports.
By 1978, manufactured goods exports were almost non-existent, and with the lost support of the Soviet Union the Siad Barre government signed structural adjustment agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IFM) during the early 1980s, as the Somali army refused to accept a proposed 60 percent cut in military spending. New agreements were made with the Paris club, the International development Association and the IMF during the second half of the 1980s. This ultimately failed to improve the economy which deteriorated rapidly in 1989 and resulted in nationwide commodity shortages.
Car collision
In May 1986, President Said Barre suffered injuries in a life-threatening automobile collision near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm. He was treated in a hospital in Saudi Arabia for head of injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month. Lieutenant General Mohamed Ali Samatar, then Vice-president, subsequently served as de-facto head of state for the next several months. Although Siad Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the interior, in addition to Siad Barre's Vice-president Lt. Gen. Samatar.
Human rights abuses
Part of Siad Barre's time in power was characterised by oppressive dictatorial rule, including persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and dissidents. The United Nations Development Programme stated that "the 21-year regime of Siad Barre's had one of the worst human rights records in Africa. " In January 1990, the Africa Watch Committee, a branch of Human Rights Watch organisational released an extensive report titled "Somalia A Government At War with Its Own People" composing of 268 pages, the report highlights the widespread violations of basic human rights in the northern of Somalia. The report includes testimonies about the killing and conflict in northern Somalia by newly arrived refugees in various countries around the world. Systemic human rights abuses against the dominant Isaaq clan in the north was described in the report as "state sponsored terrorism " " both the urban population and nomads living in the countryside (were) subjected to summary killings, arbitrary arrest, detention in squalid conditions torture, rape, crippling constraints on freedom of movement and expression and a pattern of psychological intimidation. The report estimates that 50,000 to 60, 000 people were killed from 1989." Amnesty International went on to report that torture methods committed by Siad Barre's National Security Service (NSS) included executions and "beatings while tied in a contorted position, electric shocks, rape of woman prisoners, simulated executions and death threats."
In September 1970, the government introduced the National Security Law No. 54, which granted the NSS the power to arrest and detain indefinitely these who expressed critical views of the government, without ever brought to tr. It further gave the NSS the power to arrest without a warrant anyone suspected of a crime involving "national security ". Article 1 of the law prohibited "acts against the independence, unity or security of the state ", and capital punishment was mandatory for anyone convicted of such acts.
From the late 1970s, and onwards Siad Barre forced a shrinking popularity and increased domestic resistance. In response, Siad Barre's elite unit, the Red Berets (Duub cas ), and the parliamentary unit called the Victory Pioneers carried out systematic terror against the Majeerteen, Hawiye, and Isaaq clans. The red Berets systematically smashed water reservoirs to deny water to the Majeerteen and Isaaq clans their herds. More than 2,000 members of the Majeerteen clan died of thirst, and an estimated 50,000 to 200,000 Isaaq were killed by the government. Members of the Victory Pioneers Also reaped large numbers of Majeerteen and Isaaq women, and more than 500, 000 Isaaq members fled to Ethiopia.
In January 1979 Siad Barre ordered the exe5of ten sheiks who were arrested for their religious beliefs. The religious community had begun to exhibit opposition to Siad Barre's furthered attempts to secularize Somalia. This egregious violation of freedom of speech was condemned by Amnesty International. Many Somalis believe this event was tipping point that led to the state's eventual failure.
Clannism
After the Ogaden War, Siad Barre adopted a "clannism" ideology and abandoned his "socialist facade" to hold onto power. A 120, 000 strong army was built for internal repression of the public and to encourage rural clan based conflicts in addition to urban clan directed massacre by specialised armed forces. Siad Barre singled out the Isaaq clan for a "neo-fascist" type punishment resulting in a "semi-colonial" type subjugation which fuelled collective self assertion to supporters of the Somali National movement.
By the mid- 1980s, more resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across the country. Siad Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those the perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwest administrative centre of Hargeisa, a Somali National movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988. The bombardment was led by General Mohamed Said Hirsi Morgan, Siad Barre's son-in-law, and resulted in the deaths of 50,000 people in the northe.
Rebellion and ouster
After fallout from unsuccessful Ogaden campaign, Siad Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the 1978 coup d'état attempt. Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot of the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Siad Barre's regime by force.
A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's assembly were held. However, Siad Barre and the politburo of his Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council wa re-established in its place. By that time, the moral authority of Siad Barre's ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council had begun to weaken. The regime was further weakened in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly totalitarian, and resistance movements, supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. The eventually led in 1991. to the outbreak of the civil war, the toppling of Siad Barre's regime and the disbandment of the Somali National Army (SNA). Among the militia groups that led the rebellion were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political opposition's of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). Siad Barre escaped from his palace towards the Kenyan border in a tank. Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ousting of Siad Barre's regime. In the south in particular, armed factions led by USC commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.
Exile and death
After fleeing Mogadishu on 26 January 1991 with his son-in-law General Morgan, Siad Barre temporarily remained in Burdhubo, in southwestern Somalia, his family's stronghold. The former dictator fled in a tank filled with reserves from the Somali Central bank. This included gold and foreign currency estimated to have been worth $27 million.
From there, he launched a military campaign to return to power. He twice attempted to retake Mogadishu, but in May 1991 was overwhelmed by General Mohamed Farah Aidid's army and forced into exile. Siad Barre initially moved to Nairobi, Kenya, but opposition groups there protested his arrival and the Kenyan government's support for him. In response to the pressure and hostilities, he moved two weeks later to Nigeria. Siad Barre died of a heart attack on 2 January 1995, in Logos.
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